- He and other researchers explain, however, that the second brain's complexity likely cannot be interpreted through this process alone. For example, scientists were shocked to learn that about 90 percent of the fibers in the primary visceral nerve, the vagus.
- Other Allergens While only eight foods (milk, egg, peanut, tree nuts, fish, shellfish, wheat, and soy) account for approximately 90 percent of all food-allergic reactions, a person can be allergic to virtually any food. While the list below is not exhaustive, allergic.
- Wealth inequality can be described as the unequal distribution of assets within a population. The United States exhibits wider disparities of wealth between rich and poor than any other major developed nation. Defining Wealth We equate wealth with “net worth,” the.
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Petroleum - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Proven world oil reserves, 2. Unconventional reservoirs such as natural heavy oil and oil sands are included. Petroleum (from Latin: petra: .
Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation. It consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to both intense heat and pressure.
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Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling (natural petroleum springs are rare). Drilling is carried out after studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentary basin analysis, and reservoir characterization (mainly in terms of the porosity and permeability of geologic reservoir structures) have been completed. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, has a negative impact on Earth's biosphere, damaging ecosystems through events such as oil spills and releasing a range of pollutants into the air including ground- level ozone and sulfur dioxide from sulfur impurities in fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming.
Etymology. The term was found (in the spelling . The rise in importance was due to the invention of the internal combustion engine, the rise in commercial aviation, and the importance of petroleum to industrial organic chemistry, particularly the synthesis of plastics, fertilizers, solvents, adhesives and pesticides. More than 4. 00. 0 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was used in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on Zacynthus. Ancient Persiantablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 3. 47 AD, oil was produced from bamboo- drilled wells in China.
The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1. Oil sands have been mined since the 1. In 1. 84. 8 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil.
Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named . In 1. 85. 0 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E.
W. Already 1. 85. Georg Christian Konrad Hun. Wietze later provided about 8. German consumption in the Wilhelminian Era. A group directed by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers hand- drilled a well in the Baku region in 1. At around the same time the world's first, small, oil refinery was opened at Jas. Romania is the first country in the world to have had its annual crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics: 2.
Advances in drilling continued into 1. Shaw reached a depth of 6. As petroleum production in the US peaked during the 1. United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union. Today, about 9. 0 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil.
Petroleum also makes up 4. United States, but is responsible for only 1 percent of electricity generation. Viability of the oil commodity is controlled by several key parameters, number of vehicles in the world competing for fuel, quantity of oil exported to the world market (Export Land Model), Net Energy Gain (economically useful energy provided minus energy consumed), political stability of oil exporting nations and ability to defend oil supply lines. The top three oil producing countries are Russia, Saudi Arabia and the United States. A large portion of the world's total oil exists as unconventional sources, such as bitumen in Canada and extra heavy oil in Venezuela. While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil.
Thus, Canada's oil sands are not expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the foreseeable future. Composition. Under surface pressure and temperature conditions, lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane occur as gases, while pentane and heavier hydrocarbons are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an underground oil reservoir the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the phase diagram of the petroleum mixture. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas.
A gas well produces predominantly natural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, and heptane in the gaseous state. At surface conditions these will condense out of the gas to form natural gas condensate, often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some volatilelight crude oils.
The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies greatly among different oil fields, ranging from as much as 9. The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons, while the other organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. Many oil reservoirs contain live bacteria. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a .
Crude oil may also be found in a semi- solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the Athabasca oil sands in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude bitumen. In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, black, tar- like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow. These oil sands resources are called unconventional oil to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and Venezuela contain an estimated 3. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels. Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and relative abundance, oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid- 1.
Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics; the 1. Petroleum is found in porousrock formations in the upper strata of some areas of the Earth's crust. There is also petroleum in oil sands (tar sands). Known oil reserves are typically estimated at around 1. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity. The alkanes, also known as paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general formula Cn.
H2n+2. They generally have from 5 to 4. The alkanes from pentane (C5. H1. 2) to octane (C8. H1. 8) are refined into gasoline, the ones from nonane (C9. H2. 0) to hexadecane (C1. H3. 4) into diesel fuel, kerosene and jet fuel.
Alkanes with more than 1. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 2.
The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either flared off, sold as liquefied petroleum gas under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, butane (C4. H1. 0), is blended into the gasoline pool at high rates, because its high vapor pressure assists with cold starts.
Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquified under modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation. The cycloalkanes, also known as naphthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula Cn.
H2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points. The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more planar six- carbon rings called benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula Cn. H2n- 6. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are carcinogenic. These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at an oil refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example, 2,2,4- trimethylpentane (isooctane), widely used in gasoline, has a chemical formula of C8.
H1. 8 and it reacts with oxygen exothermically. The molecules are typically extracted in a solvent, then separated in a gas chromatograph, and finally determined with a suitable detector, such as a flame ionization detector or a mass spectrometer. This unresolved complex mixture (UCM) of hydrocarbons is particularly apparent when analysing weathered oils and extracts from tissues of organisms exposed to oil.